Who He Is
Odysseus is the chief of the Cephallenians, coming from Ithaca, the father of Telemachus and the crafty one of the Achaean army. In the Iliad he is not the greatest warrior, but the man to whom one turns when it is necessary to restrain, persuade, or silence. He speaks in assembly, holds the army back when it rushes to the ships, carries Agamemnon's message to Achilles, and offers himself, with Diomedes, to go by night to the Trojan camp. The poem shows him in action and almost always accompanied, and leaves him alone in Book XI, surrounded by Trojans, and in Book XXIII, in the race, where he depends on a goddess.
Trajectory
In Book I, when Agamemnon threatens to take the prize of whoever has one, he names Odysseus among the three possible victims, alongside Achilles and Ajax. Odysseus commands the ship that takes Chryseis back to her father and hands her over to Chryses.
In Book II, when the assembly rushes to the ships, Odysseus stands still without touching the ship, because anguish has seized his heart. He recognizes the voice of Athena, throws his cloak to the herald Eurybates, of Ithaca, and takes Agamemnon's scepter. To kings and men of distinction he speaks gentle words to restrain them. To a common man he finds shouting, he strikes with the scepter and orders him to be silent, because the rule of many is not good: let there be one king alone, to whom Zeus gave the scepter and the laws.
οὐκ ἀγαθὸν πολυκοιρανίη· εἷς κοίρανος ἔστω, / εἷς βασιλεύς, ᾧ δῶκε Κρόνου πάϊς ἀγκυλομήτεω / σκῆπτρόν τʼ ἠδὲ θέμιστας, ἵνά σφισι βουλεύῃσι.(2.204-206), the rule of many is not good; let there be one leader, one king, to whom the son of Cronus, of crooked counsel, gave the scepter and the laws, so that he may deliberate for them.
He confronts Thersites, who insults the king: he orders him to be silent and swears that if he hears him again, he will no longer have his head upon his shoulders, nor be called the father of Telemachus, unless he strips him and sends him weeping to the ships with blows. He strikes him with the scepter and leaves a bloody welt. The troops laugh, though troubled, and praise Odysseus.
σκήπτρῳ δὲ μετάφρενον ἠδὲ καὶ ὤμω / πλῆξεν· ὃ δʼ ἰδνώθη, θαλερὸν δέ οἱ ἔκπεσε δάκρυ· / σμῶδιξ δʼ αἱματόεσσα μεταφρένου ἐξυπανέστη(2.265-267), he said this and struck his back and shoulders with the scepter; he doubled over, and a heavy tear fell from him; a bloody welt rose across his back.
Before everyone, he grants the weariness of the army and turns the argument toward the shame of going home empty-handed. He supports his plea with a sign that everyone saw at Aulis: a serpent devoured eight sparrow chicks and the mother, the ninth, and Calchas read that they would fight for as many years as the birds, and in the tenth they would take the city.
τὼ οὐ νεμεσίζομʼ Ἀχαιούς / ἀσχαλάαν παρὰ νηυσὶ κορωνίσι· ἀλλὰ καὶ ἔμπης / αἰσχρόν τοι δηρόν τε μένειν κενεόν τε νέεσθαι.(2.296-298), so I do not blame the Achaeans for being distressed beside the curved ships; but even so, it is shameful to remain so long and return empty-handed.
ὡς οὗτος κατὰ τέκνα φάγε στρουθοῖο καὶ αὐτὴν / ὀκτώ, ἀτὰρ μήτηρ ἐνάτη ἦν ἣ τέκε τέκνα, / ὣς ἡμεῖς τοσσαῦτʼ ἔτεα πτολεμίξομεν αὖθι, / τῷ δεκάτῳ δὲ πόλιν αἱρήσομεν εὐρυάγυιαν.(2.326-329), as this one devoured the chicks of the sparrow and the bird herself, eight of them, and the mother who bore them was the ninth, so we shall fight here for that many years, and in the tenth we shall take the city of wide streets.
In Book III, Helen identifies him to Priam, and Antenor recalls how he saw him when he came to Troy with Menelaus, and how he speaks when he stands up. Odysseus measures the ground of the duel with Hector and shakes the lots in the helmet.
In Book IV, when Agamemnon accuses him of waiting for others to begin the fight, he answers with a dark frown: what word escaped the fence of your teeth? If the king wishes to see, he will see the dear father of Telemachus among the front-line fighters. Agamemnon smiles and withdraws his words. Soon after, angered by the death of Leucus, his companion, he charges forward and kills Democoon, a bastard son of Priam.
Ἀτρεΐδη ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων; / πῶς δὴ φῂς πολέμοιο μεθιέμεν ὁππότʼ Ἀχαιοὶ / Τρωσὶν ἐφʼ ἱπποδάμοισιν ἐγείρομεν ὀξὺν Ἄρηα; / ὄψεαι αἴ κʼ ἐθέλῃσθα καὶ αἴ κέν τοι τὰ μεμήλῃ / Τηλεμάχοιο φίλον πατέρα προμάχοισι μιγέντα / Τρώων ἱπποδάμων· σὺ δὲ ταῦτʼ ἀνεμώλια βάζεις.(4.350-355), Atrides, what word escaped the fence of your teeth? How can you say that we let go of the war, when we Achaeans stir up the sharp Ares against the horse-taming Trojans? You will see, if you wish and if it concerns you, the dear father of Telemachus mixed among the front-line horse-taming Trojans; but you speak these empty things, vain as the wind.
In Book V, when he sees Sarpedon wounded, he hesitates between pursuing the son of Zeus and killing more Lycians; it was not his to kill the son of Zeus, and Athena turns his spirit back against the crowd of Lycians. In Book VIII, when the scales of Zeus make the Greeks retreat, Diomedes calls to him, but Odysseus does not listen and runs for the ships.
In Book IX, he is the first to speak in Achilles' tent. He recalls Peleus's counsel when he sent his son to Agamemnon, and repeats the list of gifts, leaving out the last request, that Achilles submit. He closes his speech with two arguments: pity for the exhausted, and the glory of defeating Hector, who is about to come very close.
τειρομένους ἐλέαιρε κατὰ στρατόν, οἵ σε θεὸν ὣς / τίσουσʼ· ἦ γάρ κέ σφι μάλα μέγα κῦδος ἄροιο· / νῦν γάρ χʼ Ἕκτορʼ ἕλοις, ἐπεὶ ἂν μάλα τοι σχεδὸν ἔλθοι(9.302-304), have pity on those exhausted throughout the army, who will honor you as a god; for you would win great glory among them; now you could take Hector, since he would come very close to you.
Achilles answers without biting at the bait of glory, and Odysseus returns to Agamemnon with the news of the refusal, and reports that Achilles threatens to launch the ships into the sea at dawn.
In Book X, Diomedes chooses him as his companion for the spying mission, saying that he knows how to think beyond the others and that Athena loves him. Odysseus asks that they neither praise nor blame him. On the road, Athena sends a heron that they only hear. Odysseus questions the Trojan spy Dolon with a phrase that loosens the prisoner's tongue, and Diomedes kills him in the gesture of supplication. Odysseus offers the spoils to Athena, hangs them on a tamarisk, recognizes the Thracian camp from what Dolon told them, and drags the dead by their feet so that the horses of Rhesus pass without being startled.
πῶς ἂν ἔπειτʼ Ὀδυσῆος ἐγὼ θείοιο λαθοίμην, / οὗ πέρι μὲν πρόφρων κραδίη καὶ θυμὸς ἀγήνωρ / ἐν πάντεσσι πόνοισι, φιλεῖ δέ ἑ Παλλὰς Ἀθήνη. / τούτου γʼ ἑσπομένοιο καὶ ἐκ πυρὸς αἰθομένοιο / ἄμφω νοστήσαιμεν, ἐπεὶ περίοιδε νοῆσαι.(10.243-247), how then could I forget divine Odysseus, whose eager heart and proud spirit show themselves ready beyond all others in every labor, and whom Pallas Athena loves? If he follows me, even out of blazing fire the two of us would return, since he knows how to think beyond others.
θάρσει, μηδέ τί τοι θάνατος καταθύμιος ἔστω. / ἀλλʼ ἄγε μοι τόδε εἰπὲ καὶ ἀτρεκέως κατάλεξον·(10.383-384), take courage, and let death not be on your mind. Come, tell me this and recount it exactly.
In Book XI, Odysseus is left alone, because all the Argives flee. He speaks to his own heart: great will be the evil if he flees, and worse still if he is taken alone. He concludes that the cowards withdraw from war, and that whoever distinguishes himself in combat must stand firm, whether wounded or wounding. Socus wounds him in the side, but Athena keeps the spear from touching his entrails, and Odysseus kills him and says the birds will devour him, while if he dies, the divine Achaeans will give him burial. He calls three times for help, and Menelaus and Ajax pull him out of the crowd.
ὤ μοι ἐγώ τί πάθω; μέγα μὲν κακὸν αἴ κε φέβωμαι / πληθὺν ταρβήσας· τὸ δὲ ῥίγιον αἴ κεν ἁλώω / μοῦνος· τοὺς δʼ ἄλλους Δαναοὺς ἐφόβησε Κρονίων. / ἀλλὰ τί ἤ μοι ταῦτα φίλος διελέξατο θυμός; / οἶδα γὰρ ὅττι κακοὶ μὲν ἀποίχονται πολέμοιο, / ὃς δέ κʼ ἀριστεύῃσι μάχῃ ἔνι τὸν δὲ μάλα χρεὼ / ἑστάμεναι κρατερῶς, ἤ τʼ ἔβλητʼ ἤ τʼ ἔβαλʼ ἄλλον.(11.404-410), Oh me, what shall I do? It is a great evil if I flee, frightened by the crowd; and a worse one if I am taken alone, for the son of Cronus has routed the other Danaans. But why does my dear heart speak these things to me? For I know that cowards withdraw from war, and that the one who distinguishes himself in battle must stand firm, whether he is struck or strikes another.
ἆ δείλʼ οὐ μὲν σοί γε πατὴρ καὶ πότνια μήτηρ / ὄσσε καθαιρήσουσι θανόντι περ, ἀλλʼ οἰωνοὶ / ὠμησταὶ ἐρύουσι, περὶ πτερὰ πυκνὰ βαλόντες. / αὐτὰρ ἔμʼ, εἴ κε θάνω, κτεριοῦσί γε δῖοι Ἀχαιοί.(11.452-455), Ah, wretched man! Your father and your lady mother will not close your eyes in death, but the carrion birds will drag you off, beating their dense wings around you. But as for me, if I die, the divine Achaeans will give me burial.
In Book XIV, when Agamemnon proposes launching the ships into the sea, Odysseus looks at him sideways: what word escaped the fence of your teeth? He should command a worthless army, not men whom Zeus has destined for wars from youth to old age. Retreat would give the Trojans what they desire and take from the Achaeans the spirit to fight.
τὸν δʼ ἄρʼ ὑπόδρα ἰδὼν προσέφη πολύμητις Ὀδυσσεύς· / Ἀτρεΐδη ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων· / οὐλόμενʼ αἴθʼ ὤφελλες ἀεικελίου στρατοῦ ἄλλου / σημαίνειν, μὴ δʼ ἄμμιν ἀνασσέμεν,(14.82-85), and the crafty Odysseus, looking at him sideways, answered: Son of Atreus, what word escaped the fence of your teeth! Wretched man, I wish you commanded some other worthless army, and did not rule over us,
Τρωσὶ μὲν εὐκτὰ γένηται ἐπικρατέουσί περ ἔμπης, / ἡμῖν δʼ αἰπὺς ὄλεθρος ἐπιρρέπῃ. οὐ γὰρ Ἀχαιοὶ / σχήσουσιν πόλεμον νηῶν ἅλα δʼ ἑλκομενάων, / ἀλλʼ ἀποπαπτανέουσιν, ἐρωήσουσι δὲ χάρμης.(14.98-101), for the Trojans what they pray for will come to pass, even though they already prevail, and over us steep ruin hangs. For the Achaeans will not hold the war if the ships are dragged into the sea: they will look around in dismay, and lose their ardor for battle.
In Book XIX, Odysseus opposes Achilles, who wants to lead the Achaeans into war fasting: strength lies in bread and wine, and no one fights face to face all day without eating. He orders the gifts brought, asks Agamemnon to swear before the Achaeans, and says the king will be fairer to the others afterward. Achilles replies that the rite can wait for vengeance, and Odysseus answers that he surpasses Achilles in counsel, for he is older and knows more.
ἀλλὰ πάσασθαι ἄνωχθι θοῇς ἐπὶ νηυσὶν Ἀχαιοὺς / σίτου καὶ οἴνοιο· τὸ γὰρ μένος ἐστὶ καὶ ἀλκή. / οὐ γὰρ ἀνὴρ πρόπαν ἦμαρ ἐς ἠέλιον καταδύντα / ἄκμηνος σίτοιο δυνήσεται ἄντα μάχεσθαι(19.160-163), But order the Achaeans to eat by the swift ships, bread and wine: for in them lie strength and vigor. For no man, the whole day until the sun goes down, unfed, will be able to fight face to face;
In Book XXIII, at Patroclus's games, he faces Ajax, son of Telamon, in wrestling, and the two grip each other like two roof beams, neither bringing the other down. Achilles interrupts them and declares both winners. In the foot race, Odysseus follows right behind Ajax, son of Oileus, as close as a spindle to a weaver's breast, and in the last stretch prays silently to Athena. She eases his limbs and makes Ajax slip in the dung of the oxen. Ajax tells the Achaeans that the goddess tripped his feet, she who, like a mother, stands by Odysseus and helps him.
μηκέτʼ ἐρείδεσθον, μὴ δὲ τρίβεσθε κακοῖσι· / νίκη δʼ ἀμφοτέροισι· ἀέθλια δʼ ἶσʼ ἀνελόντες / ἔρχεσθʼ, ὄφρα καὶ ἄλλοι ἀεθλεύωσιν Ἀχαιοί.(23.735-737), Do not strive any longer, nor wear yourselves out with suffering: victory is for both of you; take equal prizes, so that the other Achaeans may also compete.
κλῦθι θεά, ἀγαθή μοι ἐπίρροθος ἐλθὲ ποδοῖιν.(23.770), Hear me, goddess, come be a good help to my feet.
ὢ πόποι ἦ μʼ ἔβλαψε θεὰ πόδας, ἣ τὸ πάρος περ / μήτηρ ὣς Ὀδυσῆϊ παρίσταται ἠδʼ ἐπαρήγει.(23.782-783), Alas, the goddess has harmed my feet, she who has always stood by Odysseus like a mother and helped him.
Themes Embodied
Odysseus embodies Honor and reputation in the form of shame used as an instrument: it is with shame that he turns the army back in Book II, rebukes Agamemnon in Book XIV, and forces himself to resist in Book XI. He embodies War from the side of intelligence: espionage, interrogation, the cunning with the horses of Rhesus, the rule that the army must eat. And Fate and free will appear in the sign of Aulis, which he reads to hold the Achaeans back.
In each scene Odysseus speaks from what the other needs to hear, and the poem shows his craft through differences of tone. To kings, gentle words; to the common man, the scepter; to Agamemnon, a sidelong glance; to Achilles, the argument fitted to the listener, after leaving out the king's last request. There are two readings for that omission in Book IX: tact, or the calculation of someone who knows the listener. The text does not decide, and Achilles' answer shows that the bait of glory did not work. In the Doloneia, the same intelligence extracts information from a prisoner whom Diomedes kills right afterward, and the narrator tells it without comment, while Odysseus offers the spoils to Athena. His last image in the poem is that of a runner who wins only with a goddess's help.
Relationships
- Agamemnon: the king he serves and whom he rebukes in Book XIV.
- Achilles: the addressee of the embassy in Book IX and the judge who declares him the winner in Book XXIII.
- Diomedes: the companion of the Doloneia, who chooses him for his intelligence and for Athena's love.
- Athena: the goddess who holds him back in Book II, protects him in Book XI, and helps him in the race of Book XXIII.
- Nestor: the other counselor of the army, who answers him in the assembly of Book II.
- Ajax: the rival in the wrestling at Patroclus's games (in the race the rival is the other Ajax, son of Oileus), and the ally who rescues him in Book XI.
- Menelaus: the companion who rescues him in Book XI and who came with him as envoy to Troy.
- Zeus: the god who gives the scepter and the laws to the king, in the doctrine Odysseus repeats.
- Thersites, the man he strikes with the scepter, and Dolon, the spy he interrogates.